Theory J. M
Doctor of Economics I. OSADCHA.
Science and Life // Illustrations
Befriending the Keynes, depicted in the painting by W. Roberts. 1935 rec.
John Maynard Keynes. Portrait of robot Gwen Ravert. 1908 rec.
Lydia Lopukhova at the stage show "Hot Ladies", on which Keynes first sighed. London. 1918 rec.
George Bernard Shaw (levoruch) and John Maynard Keynes at Cambridge. 1926 rec.
At Linden 1944 Keynes' rock was bought at Bretton Woods. A small but important conference about the military foundations of international currency exchanges.
One of the last photographs of Keynes; Lydia sees the man off to the House of Lords. December 17, 1945.
Ten years ago, the journal (Nauka i Zhittya Nos. 11 and 12, 1997) published my great article about the famous English economist and sovereign figurine, who had plunged into the whole modern economic theory and especially the economic policy of the ranks of the roaring capitalists. Even though the development of capitalism did not collapse and went into trouble, just as the classics prophesied for Marxism, then it did not goat the goiter of J. M. Keynes. The very idea of yoga was adopted by the fundamental transformation of capitalism, the transformation of yoga into a changed system, into a market mechanism, it was placed in the civilized framework of laws, tied to the sovereign regulation of the economy.
That modern economic theory is inconceivable without that contribution, which J. M. Keynes brought before it, having fallen asleep, in fact, a new division - macroeconomics, which became, in that chi and inshomu, the basis of macroeconomic policy in the Russian economy. But the understanding of the "introduction" - now caught, greedily accepted, tired - is clearly insufficient to characterize Keynesianism. Pratsі Keynes (nine 33 volumes of recent collections of works) and naivedomisha, the head of the yogo robot "The whole theory of employment, a hundred and a penny" for some have become an inexhaustible source of inspiration and research of new zastosuvan of yogo theoretical principles in the minds of the lesser, the lesser, for the lesser ones critics, but, however, yogo pratsі z'yavilis truly rushing motor modern development of economic theory.
As Don Patinkin, a Keynesian addict, wrote when he wrote: "In the history of modern economic ideas, Keynes' Global Theory has seen not only a revolution, but also a legendary process of criticism and discussion that accompanies development." The share of "Zahalnaya theory" is unique. Until this day, this book is filled with creation, which will be created in today's economic literature.
Not long ago I had a chance to turn to Keynes again at the link with the light of the world translation of my Russian biography, written by Keynes's biographer, English historian and economist Robert Skidelsky. From the very beginning of the book, I knew a lot about the share of his team - a miraculous woman and a ballerina from the entreprise of the leading propagandist of everything new in Russian art, Sergius Diaghilev - Lydia Lopukhova. I found out about the role that she played in the life of our hero. Vinikla's thought: why not tell about our spіvvіtchiznitsyu, "muse", it would be given, a dry theoretician-economist and a zhorstky sovereign fiend? To that river, which is similar to what was said about Keynes, there is less than a part of the truth about the new like about the people.
Keynes's superbly rich-faceted specialty. Vin is not only an economist, but a philosopher, an amateur of literature, music, painting and theater. As a student, I transcribed the Latin verses of middle-aged poets. A great place in yoga life, especially in the first half, was occupied by friendship with members of the leading association of English intellectuals, artists and writers - the Bloomsbury Club. Being a wealthy person, he acted as the greatest philanthropist, helping his Bloomsbury people, and not only them, buying paintings by wealthy contemporary artists, and sponsoring theatrical performances, especially ballet performances. Lidiya Lopukhova, as she reprimanded Keynes, and became his team, as she closed the kolo to occupy. Vaughn had many professional interests, connected with the economy, unruly love to the arts. І tsim arched tsіkavі їkhnі stosunki.
Russian seasons, Diaghilev and appearance of Lіdії in London
To understand how the ballerina Lydia Lopukhova went into the life of Keynes, to tell some important facts about the cultural life of Europe ahead of the First World War. In 1909, Sergei Diaghilev, who created the corpse of the "Russian Ballet of Diaghilev", first saw him go to Paris. The famous Russian seasons began, as they literally stunned the audience with not only a new word in ballet, new opera productions, new voices (used to Shalyapin), but, amazingly, and an incredible synthesis of dance, painting, innovative artists and music of new composers - most importantly Russian , and then the European ones. Choreography - M. Fokin and L. M'yasin. Composers - I. Stravinsky, S. Prokofiev, Manuel de Falla, M. Ravel, K. Debussy. Artists - L. Bakst, A. Benois, P. Picasso, A. Golovin, N. Goncharova and M. Larionov. I, nareshti, are such famous dancers, like V. Nizhinsky, S. Lifar, A. Pavlova, T. Karsavina and others. Lidiya Lopukhova was asked to join this wonderful company in 1910 (before that, she danced at the Mariinsky Theater, and in 1907-1910, in the partnership of her brother Fyodor Lopukhov, and Ganny Pavlova, she made a tour of the USA). In 1915, the dance became one of the leading dances of the corpse of Diaghilev.
The fathers of the brothers and sisters of the Lopukhovs did not miss a hundred years before the ballet. Schopravda, father - came from the villagers of the Tambov province - was a usher in the Oleksandriya theater and loved the theater. Possibly, for that very reason, four five-five yogo children went to study at the Petersburg Imperial Theater School (fortunately, as Fedir Lopukhov guessed, the students were accepted there without a cost and on the outside of the court). Fedir (1886-1973) was the first to join, thus becoming the greatest ballet choreographer of Radyansk Russia, having given most of his work to the Mariinsky and partly to the Great Theaters. Then the sisters Yevgenia and Lidiya ta, Nareshti, brother Andriy entered the school. Fifth brother, Mykola, graduated from the Electrical Engineering Institute. Only Lydia stumbled behind the cordon, the reshta lived in Russia.
First, Keynes gave Lydia Lopukhov a drink in 1918 on the first hour of the first tour of Diaghilev's ballet in London: beyond Paris, Diaghilev's entreprise impressed the London public with its art. The very same friendship began. In 1921, a friend’s friend zustrich was born, if Lidiya left a little reproach to his heart. In one of the sheets, Keynes wrote: "I won't let me get it right in my opinions."
Lydia was greatly perturbed by the stake of her Bloomsbury friends, especially the female part, because of her extravagance in marriage, dress, ways of life. It was not without reason that the Bloomsburys themselves were striving: Lydia, not from their middle ground, and, in my opinion, did not follow the inner world of Keynes - their friend, patron, and head dzherel Koshtiv. To the very same, which did not befit the Bloomsburys, and Lydia captivated our hero. Vaughn is small hostile mind, great sense of humor, fun and lively character. As noted by Keynes' nephew Milo Keynes, she actually did not like to take part in Bloomsbury's conversations about valuables, morality, religion, about the soul, politics and other problems. And when she turned on at the rozmovi process, she would interrupt them with snide respects.
Lydia was very womanly. I’ll give you just one more kindly description of the woman’s portrait: “The growing trochs are lower than the average, she’s small and small, she has a good figure ... . Sinіchi, Blіdi Pukhkі Schichi і Funny Nіs, Shah, throwing on Dzob Kolіbrі і Nadavav R_dkіsnu p_Kannіst Viraza її Dowl. In English Speaking Good, s Privibilvim accents. Tsei Keynes dopsє в Vіdguk Keyneza robbed її the lover of the peeps".
In 1925 the brothers Keynes and Lydia became friends. Tsіkava details. Vladny Diaghilev sounded categorically zamіzhzhya his ballerinas. One of his biographers, S. Fedorovsky, writes: "While admitting more than a few blames in quiet moods, such a tie turned into social advantages and a penny profit. get rid of the corpse."
Shlyub with Keynes, appearing superbly in the distance and happy. The variety of professional interests not only did not change, but even more creaked their split. Almost from the fact that Keynes knows in the person of his squad a whole sensible and wonderful partner, with interest and adequately responding to problems, he is praised.
In the wake of the first acquaintance in 1918, the party of wines sent its famous work "Economic heritage of the world" - the result of its participation in the Paris Peace Conference, on which the bags of the First World War were signed and signed the Treaty of Versailles. With this robot, Keynes spoke out with sharp criticism of the treaty, bachachi against a new threat to the military development of capitalism in Europe. Vіn vvazhav, scho reparations z Nіmechchini owe to vrakhovuvat її zdatnіsti їх, why the signing of the agreement was not transferred. As a sign of protest, I’ll send a letter from myself to reinstate the guard of the English delegation and pishov “from the citizens of that fierce” from the treasury. From the book "distalos" to all the scientists of the allied powers, who took part in the signing of the Treaty of Versailles - Clemenceau, Wilson, and Lloyd George.
So the ballerina first got to know the image of thoughts and the intransigent surrender of her future man.
In 1923, Keynes joined with his companions on the pennies of the foundation created by him and bought the magazine "Nation and Ateneum", and the Cambridge School took the opportunity to widely spread its ideas through the magazine. The central themes of the journal were the positions, as Keynes himself propagated: the need to turn to the gold standard, achieve a healthy regulation of reparations from Germany and develop the liberal philosophy of state economic management. Lydia stumbled among the first readers of the magazine, and, moreover, she hung her anger out to the editor and the author of low articles. (Because of this, the Bloomsbury writer Virginia Woolf, a writer who was an active opponent of Keynes and Lopukhovo, wrote not without unity: “Mabut, now I have to read The Nation. It’s like a tragedy to fall on daddy’s eyes ...”).
In 1924, Keynes talked about Leeds about the cob of work on a new book - it was about "Treatises about pennies", - as it was in 1930s. With Keynes, to come to a residual conclusion about those that the whole economic theory, and not only financial aspects, will require a cardinal update. It is necessary to bring the theory of sustainability to new economic realities that characterize the capitalism of the twentieth century.
In 1928, Lidia wrote about his unfriendly hostility in the additional "Promisle of Future Britain", prepared for the prayer by Lloyd George. With so many faults, I balk at important political problems that have been violated by dopovіdі: the role of the state in the economy and the need for class reconciliation in industry. Dopovіdі named so the titles of the middle way between individualism and sovereign socialism.
Beginning in 1931, Keynes reportedly informed the squad about the overrun of offensive work, as little as possible to turn over the very foundations of the colossal theory. It was about the creation of "Zahal'noi teorii, vіdsotka ta pennies". If in 1936 the book came out of the world and the period of dear super-girls was near it, the reports about them were also mentioned in the sheets to Lydia. (As always, in fact, Keynes’s remarks were interspersed with great respects and dotepas. For example, about the discussion in the Marshall’s Fellowship, they add: “The students were horribly bored, stalking after the beer fight.”)
New stage of patronage of Keynes
Keynes did not linger until quiet, who all his life was chasing after his vitrates for peace. Vіn is not shy to the point of extravagance, but if the new one has pennies, stained glasses are not for current consumption, but for the side of life. The sound, and then the ladies from Lydia Lopokhova, made Keynes's patronage of arts even more philanthropic. A number of paintings, valuable manuscripts, and books received money to subsidize the ballet and theater. Now it’s a lot of things to do with Lidiya’s car. Їy was already over 30 years old (ear of entry for a ballerina).
I wanted to continue dancing - and with great success - leading roles in such ballets, like Tchaikovsky's "Dreaming Beauty", Schumann's "Carnival", Stravinsky's "Petrushka", Diaghilev's corpse itself experienced difficult hours. A lot of talented dancers and choreographers have gone, they will need new specialties, and for everything they will need pennies. Keynes's pennies were rich in what they spent on the life of the corpse itself, and performed in Lydia Lopukhova. New projects are being announced. In 1929, she danced in Balanchine's ballet (by the year of the all-world famous choreographer, like a viyshov from the corpse of Diaghilev and falling asleep in the American ballet) "Darkness and Red Trojans".
At the same time, under the patronage of Keynes, she united a group of young ballerinas and dancers in England, who took the name "Camargo's conspiracy" (for the stage names of the famous Belgian dancer of the 18th century, Anne Kupp), and continued dancing herself. With the ballet "Copelia" she will complete her last ballet performance in 1933 at the great gala concert on the stage of the Covent Garden Theatre. Tsikavim є th іnshe. The "Company of Camargo" itself (it pinned its activity in the minds of the deep economic crisis in 1933) became the core, as it laid the foundation for the ballet troupe of Covent Garden and sprung into existence the famous theater of Great Britain.
Otzhe, with the ballet Lydia put an end to it. Ale won’t calm down. She has the talent of a dramatic actress. Encouraged by the excitement of her nongamous person, she is already getting ready to perform at Shakespeare's "Twelve Nights ...", which ended in a memorable success. Keynes himself comes up with a new grandiose plan: I will destroy the life of the Cambridge Theater of Mystery, in which, of course, Lydia is too small. Ale on the right is no less for her. Keynes vzagali vvazhav theater necessary lankoy enlighten students. Vin wrote, zokrema: "Great little theater ... so very necessary for us to understand the dramatic mysticism with its collapsible staleness of literature, music and artistic design, like a laboratory for experimental science. A wonderful feature of our generation is that we have pushed ourselves far. at the turn of the theatre... that place among the serious interests of the university, having borrowed like wine on the cob of the seventeenth century".
The life of the theater ended in 1936 (before the speech, at the same time with the exit from the world of "Zahalnaya teorii"). The theatrical season, obviously, was the result of the participation of Lydia, as she played the leading roles in the lower ibsenivsky p'єs. Criticism was friendly, and the Bloomsburys, no longer seeming about Keynes, were in the grip. As Skidelsky wrote, "the oncoming river of wines, having spent a lot of time in turbot for two of his creations, switching the mind of super-boys from brother-economists to turbot about the stage car of Lydia and the security of a decent menu and service in a theater restaurant."
Acquaintance with Russia and the USA
Having made friends with Lidia, Keynes, of course, would not hesitate to visit Russia, wanting to get in touch with the relatives of the squad that they lost there. True, for some reason the experiment, which was carried out in Russia, did not show any sympathy for Marxism or socialism. Vіn vvazhav, that the state is not guilty of trying to take on the functions of private administration, but rather neglect it.
Tsikavo, that in the whole period at Cambridge, Keynes struggled with heart and soul between the "right" and the "left". The "case" was economy-neoclassical, yakі didtrimulyalis many theoretical glances and vіdkidali whether yakі try the sovereign in vruchannya ekonomіku (the most famous of them - F. Hayek). "Evil" - Marxist forces, which were especially rich in Cambridge (before the speech, in Cambridge itself, the Radyanskaya search recruited the largest agents). Axis scho write from the first drive of Skidelsk: "Nayaskravishi and naikrashchi (among them students) cheered for Marxism as a sign of fighting against war, fascism and joblessness. an hour on the cob of the civil war in Spain grew to 1000, so the stench took away five of the students.
Keynes saw the Radyansky Union in 1925, 1928 and 1936. At the hour of the first trip, you will be born, having taken part in the holy ceremony of the 200th anniversary of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In addition, zavdyaki zv'yazkam squads who were saved, with Leningrad relatives and deaky Russian emigrants from the first hands of a moment of nobility, what happened in today's Russia.
The next thing to note is that Keynes's initial emphasis on Russian bishovism was unambiguously negative. Back in 1921, during the first hour of the Genoa Conference (for some reason, Chicherin was worthy of him) he was guilty of being sensitized to the fact that bіlshovizm - tse "bypassing the fever". How do you mean Skidelsky, "Keynes could not admit in a moment that the Radian Union is a new form of a great power, a building state, more than an unsafe enemy of liberal values, less soldiers and diplomacy." In 1925, while criticizing Bolshovism for the NEP, Keynes still leaned on the new force, constructing a new system that would sue special prosperity and reminiscent of the support of a new religion - a "new faith." Ale spokus trivala not long. After another visit, in 1928, Keynes left a lot of inspiration for the visnovka, that the price of the "new version" is too high. "There is more talk about the experiment itself, less about those who" work on the right "," he wrote in one of the sheets. Until Russia, the totalitarian system was formed in the minds of a hard all-season planning and administrative regulation, and that results completely changed Keynes, that he himself had chosen a way to "work right" - on the basis of indirect, financial regulation of the market economy - economics.
The Stalinist purges of the 1930s brought both yoga and Lydia to life, but in public sympathy and in sheets of resentment they showed great caution, so as not to harm relatives, who were left behind the curtain. Best of all, if the stinks could stir up, send them some parcels.
The Russian experiment has even more changed Keynes from the correctness of the way, which vin has been theoretically and which has been practically inculcated in the United States. First of all, I saw the country in 1934, in the Great Depression of the 1930s. Roosevelt's new course, which was carried out in this period, called out to the new outside praise. Singing Moscow's hostility, he wrote: "Here, and not in Moscow, there is an economical laboratory of the world. Young people who run it are miracles. I am the enemy of their competence, penetration and wisdom."
Keynes' ailment and the remaining fates of Lydia's life
Beginning in 1936, Keynes began to suffer from heart disease. Now I have a good time to spend at my mother’s in Tilton, which I added (on loan) to 1926 roci. They simply loved Tilton and his retinue, making this couple especially close. Here, at Tilton, Keynes wrote most of the sides of the "Treatise on pennies" and "Zahalnaya teorii". Now, if the ailment has become more hostile, life in Tilton becomes more rewarding and may be more fast. Lydia no longer thinks about her theatrical career. It’s only 45 years until this hour, but then she transforms into a naydbaylivish watcher. As Skidelsky says, "dos Lidiya was in the center of this turbot; at the rock of life, becoming a turbotoy ... at the lookout for a person, she introduced discipline, which she looked like a prima ballerina."
Boondocks at Tilton at that hour were already in the ground. With a new agreement on the fifty-fifty tenth lease of a Tilton maetka and a Tilton fox, Keynesy became the owner of several farms, on which they raised sheep, cows, and pigs. Pheasants and chickens were bred at foxes. The axis of Yak is described by Skidelskі Central New Keynes - Silskaya Squire: "Dovegoteles, touched by Econist in Sarzhova Pіjaku І straw khikіtnoy, I'm sorry to Ptah, a friend of ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї и отсикий истья in the long run, if the stench is right, importantly reckless, they walked around like their small mother." life would have had a more idyllic character, even though Keynes was no longer a strong citizen, and, as far as my heart allowed, I would start again at Cambridge and London to "squeak with a pen" or to drive all the most common ways in economic life and swarming.
On the cob of Another world war Keynes never knows another wild and often begins to travel to London. At this hour of wine is the secretary (unofficial) of the Ministry of Finance, as well as one of the directors of the Bank of England. Stand up for the whole low cardinal practical problems of your country: problems of domestic finance - on the cob of war and problems of social security and employment - for example. Like the first hour of the First World War, we are expanding the project of financial policy, directed at the frightening of inflation in the wake of the growth of the military widows.
Keynes categorically opposed the fixing of prices and the introduction of normative measures (the Laborites and the trade unions played the same way). At the same time, on the similar propositions of the wines, it is implicitly said: "The policy of fixed prices plus the empty police, which sound the buyers at the stores, is a way, like a lot of fate in the country of the Russian government, tse, no doubt, one of the "best" ways!" Inflation, vvazhaє vіn, you can save less from the exchange of drink for the money of new taxes and primus benefits, as if in the wake of looking at the "deposited drink" could be more vikoristan for increasing the type of tax and stimulating the economy. All the ideas of the wines are included in the brochure "How to pay for the war".
Do not forget the wines at this important hour for the country and the need to promote culture. In 1942, Keynes became his head for the sake of bringing music and art, founded for the support of musicians, actors and artists. In 1945, in turn, on the basis of the proposition that a purely beneficent organization was transformed into the Rada of the Arts of Great Britain; moreover, the same fate, becoming the head of the Committee of Covent Garden.
Deshcho surround the ebullient diyalnіst cholovіka vdaetsya less than Lіdії. Won well accompanying one hour of a whole series of trips to the USA, de Keynes had to conduct even important negotiations with the drive of the military aid of the United States of America to Great Britain, and in the future - from the food of the war, I would arrange the world.
The most significant trip was in 1944, if they took part in the Bretton Woods conference, on which a military ambush of international currency notes was fixed, and a decision was made about the creation of the International Monetary Fund and the Holy Bank. As Lidiya wrote, "Bretton Woods was a godly house, which has more ... it was fascinated by the work of human ability." Ale vodpochivat it was too early. In 1945, the stench is resurgent in the USA and Canada. There are talks going on about the throat of the Viysk for help. I, nareshti, at the fierce fate of 1946, Keynes and Lopukhov again break to America, for the first time at the urochist meeting of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Keynes' appointments keruyuchim in obsvі install.
Regardless of the stress schedule, do not forget the stink and about the ballet! Ahead of the day, we were offended by the Gala Vistava in Covent Garden, the “Dreaming Beauty” was celebrated, such a memory of the Diaghilean production of 1921, in which Lydia was so worthy of Keynes. And when you arrive in New York, you will see the ballet performances of the old comrade J. Balanchine.
21 birch stinks turned back home. The health of Keynes at that hour was already severely damaged, and a month later, on April 21, 1946, after a black heart attack, it became.
Lіdії Lopukhova was on that hour 53 rocky. Without Keynes, she lived for 36 more years, but the last few years were not marked by anything. Vaughn wrote: "And now, without anything else, I'm so self-conscious. The light has gone out. I'm crying in the mountains." For some time now she showed interest to the theater and ballet, the protégé from the beginning of the 1960s was left to rest in Tilton's sweet heart. Lydia died in 1981, and Keynes's nephew - Richard Keynes rose the gunpowder on the same hillock Downs, in his hour the gunpowder was developed as a man.
Keynes, John Maynard(Keynes, John Maynard) (1883-1946), English economist. Born in Cambridge on the 5th of January 1883, in the sim'ї of J.Keynes, a kind of stretching of rich fates, having embraced the post of the head administrator of the University of Cambridge. Keynes studied at Іtonі, then at the King's College of the University of Cambridge, which he graduated from in 1905. At the university, he advanced to a group of intellectuals on the basis of L.Strechі ("the Bloomsbury group"). Graduated from college, having advanced to the rock economy under A. Marshall and A. Pigu, in 1906 having taken the recognition to the Administration of the right of India. At the same time, having dedicated the study of the theory of imaginings and the inductive method, in 1908 having taken the tenure at the King's College, and for the first time the dissertation, supplemented and corrected, was published in 1921 under the name A Treatise on Imovirnist (A Treatise on Probability).
In 1908, Keynes worked as a scholar at the Faculty of Economics at the University of Cambridge. 1913 roci wijshla yoga book Penny money and finance in India. Before the very її exit from the world, the author was asked to take the office of the secretary of the royal commission for Indian finances and a penny incentive to join Austin Chamberlain, the former minister of foreign affairs. Under the hour of the First Light War, Keynes will send requests for work to the Treasury (Ministry of Finance), deferring from allies and foreign exchange reserves. Buv directions by the representative of the ministry to the Paris peace conference, speaking out against the tightening of reparations from Germany, vvazhayuchi tse decision to destabilize the economy of Europe. Look at your own hanging from the book Economic consequences of the Treaty of Versailles(The Economic Consequences of the Peace), zavdyaki yakіy otrimav wide popularity, the main rank of zavdyaki glaring zamalovki Woodrow Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George.
Turning to obov'yazkіv vykladach at the King's College, Keynes continued to reach the economic station in Europe, zocrema at his work Revision of the peace treaty(1922) that series of articles in the appendices to the Manchester Guardian, which appeared under the title Reinvention of Europe(1922). IN Treatise on penny reform (A Tract on Monetary Reform, 1923) having solved the problems of penny reform and unemployment. Nezabara after the war, Keynes took up business activities, and until 1937 he accumulated a chimali camp. Appointments to the Treasury of the King's College, vin significantly improving the financial position of the first mortgage. In 1911-1944, he became the editor of the Economic Journal, publishing a large number of articles in the largest newspapers. In 1925 he became friends with the ballerina Lydia Lopukhova.
During the 1920s, Keynes was engaged in long-term economic problems, as he knew his own advice from yoga practitioners Treatise on pennies (Treatise on Money, 1930) Zagalna theory of employment, a hundred and pennies (The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936). Keynes brought the impossibility of the concept of a self-regulating economy and proponuvaya a number of approaches to lending, penny income and employment security of the population. Having developed the idea of psychological stimulation of the population and market advantages of individuals as a factor in the sovereign regulation of the economy. Turning to the service to the MINSTECTION FINANSIV NEOVOVI PISLY CITING OF OPTORY OF SVITOVO RIYNI, becoming a consultant to the Bіlshostі nivazhiviy's problems, shave the funki-ringing of Ekoniki in Umobov in the midnight of the ongoing visible, Roses the plan of the Creativeness of the M_Inzitnoye Organi, Yaka twisted the name "Clіring Union". A lot of ideas for this plan were known in the past by the statute of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In 1942, Keynes became a member of the House of Lords as Baron Tilton, in 1943-1944 taking part in the preparation and acceptance of the land in Bretton Woods about the creation of the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (Light Bank).
Biography
Special family life
Keynes was born in the family of an economist, lecturer in economics and philosophy at the University of Cambridge, John Nevil Keynes, and Florence Adi Brown (Eng. Florence Ada Brown), a successful writer, who was also engaged in social work, she was the first woman-mayor of Cambridge. Yogo is the younger brother of Jeffrey Keynes. Geofferey Keynes) (1887-1982), former surgeon and bibliophile, his young sister Margaret (1890-1974) was friends with the Nobel Prize winner psychologist Archibald Hill. The economist's niece, Polly Hill, is also the economist's guide. Maynard Keynes, in a university philanthropist's midday, on June 13, great-grandmother Jane Elizabeth Ford wrote to you:
It’s clear that you’re smarter than you are, you’ve been living at Cambridge all the time
Vlitka 1909 Maynard Keynes moved to an apartment from a kіlkoh kіmnat, roztashovani on the overhead version of the old guard house between King Lane and Webbcourt near Cambridge. Tse appointment Keynes borrowed right up to death. The norms of behavior at the King's College became the Daedals less sour. In one of his leaves Duncan Grant 5 December 1909. Maynard wrote after the banquet: “Who will become with us with our reputations, only heaven will know ... We have never been like this before - and I marvel, as if it were to be repeated ...” Undoubtedly, Keynes thickened farby for the needs of Duncan, who knew in London, ale tim no less, the historian of the Royal College Patrick Wilkinson states that in 1908. in front of the college, it was contrary, like "in the door people's bets flaunted their mutual pretense." April 7, 1909 Maynard Keynes and Duncan violated the double entry gate at Versailles. It called out to the pershu crisis in their stosunkah. Duncan wrote to Henry James: "I said I don't like yoga any more," Duncan thought he would close the door of a single link. Keynes continued to help Grant financially throughout his life.
Having been born to this professor, Maynard Keynes was a product of the Cambridge civilization at її rosequity. Keynes's team included the likes of philosophers - George Edward Moore, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and the exotically born Cambridge, like the Bloomsbury group. There were a lot of writers and artists, with whom Keynes had a tight friendship. Yogo felt the atmosphere of wandering minds and awakening of sexuality, typical of the transition from Victorian England to the era of King Edward VII.
At the same time in 1918, Keynes succumbed to the Russian ballerina Diaghilevskaya entreprise Lydia Lopukhova in the first war seasons near London, in 1921 Keynes died in Lydia, if she danced in Diaghilev's colorful production of Teahouse. In 1925, the stinks became friends, just as Lydia took off separation from her first Russian man, Randolfo Barroki. In addition, J. M. Keynes, having arranged his first trip to the SRSR for the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the Academy of Sciences, and also becoming a ballet patron of the arts and creating a ballet libreto. In addition, John. M. Keynes visited the USSR in 1928 and 1936 with private visits. Shlyub Keynes, mabut, buv schaslivy, wanting through the problems of the medical nature of friends could not mother of children. Lydia survived Keynes and died in 1981.
Keynes was taller, about 198 cm. After the collapse of the stock market in 1929, Keynes, leaning on the borders of bankruptcy, would not hesitate to restore his wealth.
Having hoarded collections of books and zoomed in on a lot of original robots by Isaac Newton (Keynes called Yogo the Last Alchemist (eng. "the last alchemist")) and dedicating to him the lecture "Newton, the Man". Keynes's book about Newton, but it's not clear from the context.
At the time of Keynes's death in 1946, his investment portfolio was estimated at 400 thousand pounds sterling (today 11.2 million), and the number of collections of books and objects of science was 80 thousand pounds sterling (2.2 million).
With literature and dramaturgy, giving financial support to the Cambridge Art Theatre, which allowed this theater to become, even if only for a day, the most significant British theater, roztastovanie London.
osvita
In the other half of the 1920s, Keynes attributed to himself the "Treatise on Pennies" (), de continuing to continue to support the exchange rates and the gold standard. In this robot, the idea is about the introduction of automatic balancing between salaries and investments, so that they can be equal to equal employment.
Keynes was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Finance and Industry and Economic Advisory. In the fierce fate of 1936, he published his main practice - “The whole theory of employment, a hundred and a penny”, in order to introduce the concept of the accumulation multiplier (Keynes's multiplier), as well as formulate the main psychological law. Following the "Zahalnoi theory of employment, a hundred and a penny" for Keynes, the status of a leader in the economic science and economic policy of his hour is confirmed.
Scientific activity
J. M. Keynes was the central figure of the mid-economists of the 20th century, having created the foundations of the modern macroeconomic theory, building the basis for the budget and credit-penny policy.
It is possible to understand Keynes's position to economic science from the obituary on the death of his teacher Alfred Marshall, in fact, the whole scientific program and the ideal of the scientist-economist:
The great economist is to blame for the mother of the rіdkіsne podednanny talents ... Vіn is guilty of buti - the singing world - a mathematician, historian, sovereign fiend and philosopher. Vin is guilty of thinking with symbols and good with words. Vin is guilty of understanding privately in the context of the vulgar and remembering the abstract and the concrete with one thought. Vіn is guilty of living today at the light of the past - for the sake of the future. There is nothing in human nature and institutions of welfare that is not guilty of unique respect. Vіn maє buti can be simultaneously straightened and savage to the sky, like a right artist, but with whom you can stand firmly on your feet and be practical like a political playboy.
The first work of J. M. Keynes was the article "Recent Developments in India", instructed in the year 1909 in the "Economic Journal". The author has tried to establish interrelation between the price fluctuations in India and the tide and the tide of gold. A selection of statistical data grafted on a young scientist, as if writing, near the camps. At the fall of the leaves 1911 J. M. Keynes is appointed editor of the "Economic Journal", which has become important.
After the redundancy of service in the Treasury in 1919 J. M. Keynes at the Royal College of Cambridge rozpochinaet at the next reading of the autumn course of lectures "Economic Aspects of the Peace Treaty", at once the layout of the book with the same name is being called. Tsі lectures made a strong hostility to students and made John. M. Keynes a hero of the living, even though he did not lie down on them. Prote, ce minded the feasibility of his theoretical concepts but the support of the ideas of the Labor Party and at one time J. M. Keynes's opinion without passing on the list of concepts of the conservatives. "Economic Aspects of the Peace Treaty" created Keynes's reputation as the most radical among young economists.
Keynes took part in discussions with the Political Economy Club or the Keynes Club, yakim vin cherubav z 1909. Students, graduate students, friends of the scientist came to the Keynes Club, senior members of the Keynes Club were rich in economists. The central topic of discussions at the club was the nutrition of state policy, the controversy was directed against the pardons of officials. In 1923 p. J. M. Keynes's work "A Treatise on the Penny Reform" is to appear, as the author does not fit in with the policy of the Bank of England. Since 1925, when Great Britain moved to the gold standard, J. M. Keynes came to the conclusion that the pardons of politicians were the result of pardons of theoretical phenomena. According to Keynes, he added more time to theoretical nutrition, in 1930. go out yoga robot "Treatise on pennies."
Most of the learned economists appear in 1936. book by J. M. Keynes "The global theory of employment, a hundred and a penny" to the most important podium in the history of economic thought Sunset in the interwar period. The "Zahalnіy teorії" firstly criticized the ideas of Adam Smith. J. M. Keynes at the "Zahalnaya teorii" considers the instability of the market capitalist economy and, for the first time in economic science, to bring the need for state involvement in the economy. This gave rise to a significant number of scientific practices, which smashed the scientist by one of the most important economists. J. M. Keynes, in his work, focuses on the analysis of the investment performance and the protection of the existing macroeconomic category - efficient investment (the central category of Keynesianism). In the last military period of the work of J. M. Keynes, it has reached the end of the theory of economic growth and cyclical development.
Keynes, having gained a reputation as a talented participant in various debates, and Friedrich von Hayek, once again, discussed the nutrition of the economy with him. Hayek in his time, speaking out of sharp criticism of the ideas of Keynes, the super girls between them knew how to oppose the Anglo-Saxon and Austrian traditions in economic theory. After the release of the "Treatise on pennies" (1930) Hayek cited Keynes in the presence in the new theory of capital and in the wrong diagnosis of the causes of the crisis. It is necessary to say that the singing world of Keynes, buv zmushheny vyznat justice dokorіv.
Widely seen is the discussion (often called the Discussion about the method) of Keynes with the future Nobel Prize winner in economics, Jan Tinbergen, which is the century of regression methods of economic science. The discussion centered around Keynes' article "Professor Tinbergen's Method" (Eng. Professor Tinbergen's Method ) in the magazine " economic journal and trival in a series of articles by various authors (among others, having taken the fate of young Milton Fridman). However, it is important to note that there is more discussion (through a larger window) in private listing between Keynes and Tinbergen, at the time of publication of Keynes's works in Cambridge. Sense of discussion polagav in the discussed philosophy and methodology of econometrics, as well as economics in a flash. In his sheets, Keynes looks at economics not as “the science of thought in terms of models”, but as “the science of choosing different models” (models that show light, that constantly change). This discussion has become rich, which is why it is primary for the development of econometrics.
Vedennya of economic science
Keynes, having deviated from the most important thoughts - like vin, having taken into account “clear and, it was supposed to be, self-evident” - my accessible, which allowed me to say “just about folding”. At the same time, the language of yoga was brought up, and not only for the sake of greater controversy. I thought that economic science can be intuitive, so that I can describe the world with my best mind for more people. That is why Keynes was against the arrogance of mathematization, which was respected by non-specialists. Vіn was placed negatively before the modern “imperialism” of the science of science, as it usurped the words from our splendid lexicon (on the kshtalt of the word “rationality”), transforming them into terms and having created the first sense. The scientific designation of “rational behavior” as such, which is consistent with theoretical models (because of the slander whether any other behavior is irrational), is trying to remake people on the rumors of the NATO, which behave in such a way as to punish the economy. A special introduction to the movie was inspired by the yoke of simple financial systems, we can put it together. Keynes, having acted, began to grow and grow like an atomic mushroom, the gloom of similar tools, which ruined the financial system, making it opaque for bankers. Keynes was not groaning with stupidity of this kind.
Today's macroeconomy, occupied by their own models, should not be praised by those who have realism in their allowances. Navpaki, who should get the upper hand of their models. In the wake of folding mathematical promptings, the stench of the rich, the lower extremists - the economy of the classical school, turned back to the ideal, or "platonic", myslennia, sacrificing the truth as a sacrifice to the subtlety of mathematics. Who stinks superbly about Keynes, like a vimahaw of "letting go of realism".
Keynes was simultaneously a philosopher, an economist, and a long time veteran. Vіn without ceasing to put nutrition about the last goals of economic activity. Briefly seeming, Keynes vvazhav, scho pull up to wealth - "love to a pittance", for yoga vislova, - it is true that there is no more left, no more leaves allow "to live well." And "live well" - tse, according to Keynes, does not mean "live richly", tse means "live righteously." For Keynes, the only real economic activity of a person is the exercise of moral perfection. Keynes, predicting that with the growth of productivity, the trivality of the working day will be fast, what to do, in such a life of people you will become “reasonable, accepting and hospitable”. For whom, according to Keynes, nutrition, the science of economics is now needed.
Savings that have been injected into Keynes's work
Div. also
- Fear the Boom and Bust
create
- Penny money and finance in India (Indian Currency and Finance, 1913)
- Economic consequences of the world (The Economic Consequences of the Peace, 1919)
- A Tract on Monetary Reform, 1923
- End of laissez-faire (The End of laissez-faire, 1926)
- Treatise on pennies (A Treatise of Money, 1931)
- General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936
- A treatise on possibility.
Literature
- Alter L. B. The bourgeois political economy of the USA. - M., 1971. - Goal. 45-76.
- Bregel E. Ya. Criticism of bourgeois teachings about the economic system of modern capitalism. - M., 1972. - Goal. 4.
- Seligman B. The main currents of the current economic thought / transl. from English - M., 1968. - S. 493-506.
- Schumpeter J. Ten great economists from Marx to Keynes / Per. from English N.V. Avtonomonova, I.M. Osadchoi, O.M. Rozinsky; under nav. ed. V.S. Avtononomova. - M.: Gaidar Institute, 2011. - ISBN 978-5-93255-302-2
- Skidelsky R. John Maynard Keynes. 1883-1946. Economist, philosopher, sovereign dean. Y 2 books = John Maynard Keynes 1883 - 1946. Economist, Philosopher, Statesman.- Macmillan. 2003/Trans. from English Demida Vasiliev. - M.: Moscow school of political studies, 2005. - T. 1. - 784 p. – (Culture Politics Philosophy). - ISBN 5-93895-071-6
- Skidelsky R. John Maynard Keynes. 1883-1946. Economist, philosopher, sovereign dean. Y 2 books = John Maynard Keynes 1883 - 1946. Economist, Philosopher, Statesman.- Macmillan. 2003/Trans. from English Demida Vasiliev. - M.: Moscow school of political studies, 2005. - T. 2. - 804 p. – (Culture Politics Philosophy). - ISBN 5-93895-070-8
- Skidelsky R. Keynes. Turn Maistra / Per. from English O. Levchenko; Sciences. ed. O. Zamulin. - M .: TOV "United Press", 2011. - 253 p. – (Economics for non-economists). - ISBN 978-5-904522-92-6
- T. IV. - Century of global transformations / Spivpred. redol. G. G. Fetisov, A. G. Khudokormiv. – M.: Dumka, 2004. – 942 p. - (Svіtova ekonomіchna dumka: Krіz prism stoіlі.- In 5 tons). - ISBN 5-244-01040-9; 5-244-01039-5
- History of economic days: Current stage: Handyman ed. A. G. Khudokormova. - M.: INFRA-M, 2009. - ISBN 978-5-16-003584-0
- Friedman M. John Maynard Keynes // Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly. - 1997. - Vol. 83, no. 2.
- Hansen A.M. A guide to Keynes. – N. Y., 1953.
- Harrod R.F. The life of John Maynard Keynes. – L., 1951.
- Raico R. Was Keynes a Liberal? // The Independent Review. - 2008. - Vol. 13, no. 2.-pp. 165-188.
- Rothbard M.N. Keynes, the Man. - in: Dissent on Keynes A Critical Appraisal of Keynesian Economics (ed. by M. Skousen). - New York: Praeger, 1992. - pp. 171-98.
- Skidelsky R. John Maynard Keynes (in 3 vols.). - New York, 1983, 1992, 2000.
- Stewart M. Keynes and after. — Harmondsworth, 1967.
Glimpse look:
- History of economic sciences: heading guide / Ed. V. Avtonomova, O. Ananyina, N. Makashevoi. - M: INFRA-M, 2004.
Notes
- , from. 356
- , from. 42
- , from. 269-270
- , from. 80
- , from. 10
- http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Keynes_Newton.html John Maynard Keynes - Newton, the Man
- , from. 102
- , from. 357-358
- “The increase in the productivity of work in industry has changed, and the amount of pseudo-pennies has grown. Although a large amount of circulating pennies was surrounded by a gold leash, but in order to get around the pennies, surrogates, shares, borgovі rozpiski, promissory notes... That amount of credit pennies for the minds of practical, uncontrolled banking activity continued to grow. On the other hand, the boom in the markets was to service the pennies, and the Federal Reserve began to fringe the growth of the penny. All this led to an economically ungrounded accumulation of financial surrogates in the financial system. The consequences of this split in the financial policy became less visible to the Zhovtni. Regardless of the price, the American economy strongly believed in the ability of the Fed, in order to stabilize the economy, as a result of the crisis. The British economist John M. Keynes himself voted to manage the dollar on the side of the Fed in 1923-1928. a "triumph" for the central bank."
- “Friedrich A. von Hayek passed the Great Depression for a few years to the Wall Street stock market crash in 1929. Hayek's book "The Penny Theory and the Trade Cycle", earlier than published in 1929 in Austria, spoke about the Great Depression. Hayek was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics (more richly, in 1974) for his work in the development of the economy, for his work in the period up to the first hour of the Depression.
- Rozmainsky I. St, Skorobogatov A. S., "John Maynard Keynes"
- , from. 398
- , from. 138
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) - prominent English economist and public figure. Vin was born as a professor of logic and economic theory at the University of Cambridge. Graduated from the university, becoming a professor there.
It would have been better if everything was due to Keynes’s education as an academic theorist, but it was not only science, but also practical activity (the knower of the stock exchange, the head of a great insurance company, the maker of an investment company), and also the political car with state service) and that gromadska diyalnist (Vlasnik and editor of a number of leading journals). The reputation of being a connoisseur of stock exchange fraud and businessman, as well as academic knowledge allowed Keynes to rise to the top spot of the financial oligarchy and become one of the directors of the Bank of England. Successfully roaring on the stock exchange, adding a solid camp, and appointing a treasury of the Cambridge King's College, zmіtsniv yogo financial camp. Years later, Keynes became a great collector of paintings, publishing a wealth of subtleties, even memoirs and bibliographical character. Having become friends with the Diaghilev ballet Lydia Lopukhova, he became a sponsor of the ballet, and in 1935. setting up the booths of the theater in Cambridge.
Keynes at the school showed non-abyak mathematic zdіbnosti. At the university I listened to the lectures of the famous English economist A. Marshal, the founder of the so-called Cambridge school. At Marshall's request, I read lectures on economic sciences. In an hour, I formed myself as a scientist-economist. Keynes' first scientific work The Index Method (1909) won the Adam Smith Prize.
In 1915-1919 rr. vin serving at the British Treasury. The main respect for his work was attached to the regulation of a penny obigu, the problems of international rosrahunkivs. During this period, Keynes took part in all the most important financial negotiations in Great Britain,
suprovodzhuv as an expert prime minister and the chancellor of the exchequer.
On the eve of the first festive season, as an economic radnik at the Ministry of Finance, taking part in the Paris Peace Conference, the Versailles Peace Treaty was signed. Keynes even sharply criticized this agreement: great reparations could, in one's opinion, ruin the Nimechchina, and a ruined country is not safe for the sudіdіv. As a sign of protest, they clave the resurrection of the British delegation. A further development is coming, as we know, having confirmed that he was right. In 1919 Keynes's book "The economic consequences of the Treaty of Versailles" was published, which became a bestseller and called out the dissatisfaction of the British ranks. Keynes wrote: "Because we are very pragmatically teething in Central Europe, then the payment will not be worth a long check." Vіn acted for the victory of the American position Nіmechchinі. The ideas were given over to the concepts of new programs, and the Marshall Plan after the Other World War was given to the singing world.
Keynes's attacking great work became "A Treatise on the Penny Reform" (1923), de bringing Britain's ungrounded turn to the gold standard. Immediately, the key problem of employment appears as a key problem and it is argued that inflation, which stimulates economically active elements of the economy, is the lesser evil, that in the toothless world it is not safe to provoke unemployment, lower dissatisfaction with rent.
Keynes's ideas were also developed in the pamphlets "Economic implications of Mr. Churchill's monetary policy" and "Kinets laisser faire", de criticizing the policy of not introducing the state into the economy.
In the middle of the 20s. Keynes came to the Radyansk Union and exclaimed his opposition to the economy of the period in the article "A Look at Russia", demonstrating how effective the socialist system is.
Follow the respect that Keynes placed negatively before Marxism. In one of the lists of wines, he wrote that he was inspired to help his theory to put forward Marx's theory. Keynes hung his position before Marxism in the following manner: "How can I accept the faith, how can I praise the tedious proletariat, put it more for the bourgeoisie and the intellectual. Were it not for the few leftovers, we don’t stink the earth, we don’t stink we are progress" ".
At the fall of the leaves of 1929, if the collapse on the American Stock Exchange had already shown the beginning of a light economic crisis, Keynes became
a member of the English rank committee for finance and industry, and having found economic pleasure in dealing with problems without work. Until this hour, Vіn Mav is already sufficient authority, to turn respect to his doctrine of economic policy is not less than worthy, but the order.
In 1930 go out at the light of the two volumes "Treatise on pennies". Let's look at the money of a penny, Keynes expands here the foundations of the theory of employment and national income, hanging on the foreground the problem of economic instability and bringing a fundamentally new approach to it for additional analysis of economic growth between investments and protection. The concept of "effective mind", which is taking its bud here, has become the mainstay of the Keynesian theory.
On the cob Another light war Keynes requests an expert to the Ministry of Finance. Yogo robot "How to pay for war" (1940) conveyed a radically new plan for solving the problem of international finance. Nadali wine taking an active part in the preparation of the Bretton Woods conference. Keynes' statements about the international monetary system were inspired by the creation of the International Monetary Fund.
The main work of Keynes "The whole theory of employment, a hundred and a penny" appeared in 1936. In her formulation of the main provisions of this system, having looked, it took away the name of Keynesianism.
Although the neoclassical theory that took place in Cambridge did not satisfy Keynes from the very beginning, it was enough to look at a lot of theoretical things that caused the crisis of 1929-1933. Neoklasichna Ekonomichna teorіya spiral on perekonannya scho ekonomіka zahіdnih kraїn rozvivaєtsya in Minds povnіstyu vіlnoї konkurentsії i spryamovuєtsya so needless vіlnoyu groyu tsіn scho rinkovy mehanіzm zabezpechuє camp stіykoї rіvnovagi, i denote Mensch power bude vtruchatisya in ekonomіchne Zhittya, Tim will attempt ratsіonalnіshimi vikoristovuvatisya resources. Ale, on the cob of a century, the situation has clearly changed. Prices for goods, services, be it products of a significant world, were dictated by monopolies. The pressure of trade unions dictated wages. There was no longer a free market in a clean look, the inflexibility of prices gave rise to an increased reaction of the economy to the minds that are changing.
The Great Depression of 1929-1933. especially clearly showed that a crisis cannot be resolved by a natural path, that the unsatisfactory severity of the social problems generated by it will require the involvement of the state, and active action. Prote universally comprehend the situation
could be more within the framework of the new theoretical approach. Yoga and chanting Keynes.
John Maynard Keynes, whose biography will be reviewed in our article, was born in 1883, 5 cherubs in Cambridge. This person died in 1946, 21 April. John Maynard Keynes is considered the founder of the theory of immovability. Vaughn was tied to the axiomatics of Kolmogorov, von Mises and Laplace. Keynes admitted that the possibility is not numerical, but logical. Under the influx of ideas learned from the science of vinyl, there is a new flow. It is clear that John Maynard Keynes is considered the founder of the theory of elites. Indeed, the first ideas about her were spoken by Pareto, Michels, Machiavelli, Mosca and Sorel.
John Maynard Keynes: biography (short)
Sim'ya, in a yakіy was born tsya vydatnaya people, bula to mow at home. Yogo dad was a lecturer in philosophy and economics at the University of Cambridge. Mother was a famous writer, as she was engaged, in other words, that huge activity. Varto say that she became the first woman to be measured at Cambridge. Sims around John had two more children. The young brother of the scientist became a bibliophile and a surgeon, and Margaret (sister) became a deputy for the psychologist Archibald Hill, who was awarded the Nobel Prize.
osvita
John Keynes went to London, King's College. At the university, I listened to Marshall's lectures, which highly appreciated the vigor of the future scientist. John Keynes learned the humanities from Henry Sijwick. The future teachings took an active part in the activities of the scientific team of the university. The Philosopher J. Moore cherished them to the same opinions among the youth stakes. In addition, Keynes was a member of the Apostles club. Here you know a lot of friends. All of them have become members of the Bloomsbury Intellectual Group.
Career
In 1906-1914, John Keynes worked at the Department, which took care of the rights of India at the Royal Commission. At that hour of wine, having done their first work. At the book of wines, they reached a penny volume and the financial system of India. In addition, in that period, Keynes wrote a dissertation on the problems of selfishness. After її zahistu of teachings, I began to write at the college.
In 1915-1919, John Keynes served at the Ministry of Finance. In 1919, there were requests for peace talks in Paris. There, he presented his plan for the renewal of the European economy in wartime. However, yoga proposition was vindicated. The prote plan became the basis for the practice of economic savings of the world. In 1920, Keynes started the problem of future light finance.
In 1921, Europe was engulfed by an economic crisis. Depression, as it followed him, turned the respect of the great man to the power of stability in prices and equal employment and virobnitstva. In 1923 rotis viyshov "Treatise on the reform of the financial system". In this robot, John Keynes analyzed the reasons for the changes in the value of pennies. In practice, I especially respect the values by adding inflation to the spread of costs, the value of scoring, fallowing between them at the price of the world and the hundredth rates. Vіn vvazhav, scho literate financial policy can be based on the priority of maintaining domestic prices on a stable level, and not on the pragmatic establishment of the exchange rate, as if the English order had been established.
John Maynard Keynes: contribution to the economy
Vcheniy buv the central figure in the scientific trade in the XX century. Having formulated the foundations of today's macroeconomics, it has, in its own way, become the basis for credit and penny and budget policy.
The first robot of a scientist - article, released in 1909. Vaughn was published by the "Economic Journal". The article was attributed to the relationship between the change in prices in India and the flow / tide at the edge of gold.
Your gurtok
From 1909 Keynes cherubav vlusnym club. Friends, graduate students, and students came before. The senior members of the team were rich in years in the presence of science deacons. The main topic of the discussion was the nutrition of state policy. The whole controversy was directed against pardons, which are allowed by officials.
In 1923, Viyshov's "Treatise on the reform of pennies." The new author did not fit in with the position of the English Bank. 1925 Britain switched to the gold standard. Todі Keynes diyshov vysnovku, scho political pardon - tse result of nevirnih theoretical phenomena. In the 1930s, the publication of the "Treatise on pennies" was published.
Klyuchova Pratsya
Many of them respect the most important practice of Keynes's book "The Great Theory of Pennies, the Wisdom of the Employment", which came out in 1936. Whose robots first consistently criticize Smith's ideas. In his practice, Keynes considers the instability of the capitalist market model. First, the history of wines to bring the need to bring the state into the system of the state. Yogo pratsya made a great impression on the fellows. Vіn becoming a postal worker until the release of the rich work, dedicated to this topic. All tse zrobil Keynes nayv_domіshim ekonomіst svogo hour. At its robotic vcheniy, respect for the analysis of spivvіdnoshennya іninvestitsіy і zaoschadzhen, doslіdzhuyuchi effektivny drink. At the war, the military personnel of the venerable gave postal supplies to the military cyclical development of that growth.
Participation in the debate
Keynes was known to be a talented companion. The deyakі vchenіt navit were urged to enter into a discussion with him. For example, one of them is F. von Hayek. In his time, he sharply criticized the ideas of Keynes. At the super girls that passed between them, the Austrian and Anglo-Saxon traditions appeared to be destroyed. After that, as viyshov "Treatise on pennies", Hayek called J. Keynes in the presence of the remaining theory in the remaining theory of capital, as well as in the incorrectly assigned causes of the crisis.
Widely discussed debates with Jan Tinbergen. Winning regression methods in science. The beginning of the discussion was laid on Keynes's article in the "Economic Journal". For a year, the won was continued by a large number of articles by various authors. Who cares, what is of greater interest is the discussion of private listings between Tinbergen and Keynes (through a larger window). The leaves were seen by luck. The stench has gone as far as the Cambridge vision of Keynes. The essence of the super-cookie is based on the discussed methodology and philosophy of econometrics. Keynes at work vvazhaє science of the mystical choice of quiet chi іnshih models, and chi not approaching the understanding of the idea in terms of models.
School of discipline
John Keynes suggested that the most important thoughts are accessible. Vіn pragniv zrobiti science zrozumіloy. Keynes realized that the discipline can be intuitive. Science is guilty of describing my world, accessible to most people. Keynes spoke out against the zastosuvannya of mathematical categories, which were respected by the student.
Vcheny buv philosopher and doslidnik vdach. Vіn postіyno putting your own food about the results of economic activity. Vcheny vvazhav, scho pragnennya wealth, so love to the pennies, but it can be true less than a remnant, shards allow you to live well. Such a reason, according to Keynes, does not favor the presence of a great capital.
Understanding the "good" beliefs from the righteousness of behavior. For Keynes, the single basis for the conduct of economic activities was the exercise of people in a perfect light. Vvazhav vcheniy, scho zі zі stannym produktivіstі the trivalіst of the working day soon sooner. Think to create, for such lives of people you will become "reasonable, accepting and good."
